CHAPTER X DEVELOPMENT OF POLITICAL LIBERTY AND THE PROGRESS OF THE INFERIOR CLASSES The Charters of Liberty—The greater number of the French towns were old villages1 belonging to a lord; even their name indicates that, ville (villa) sig- nifies domain. The towns which dated from the Roman times had fallen tinder the power of either their bishop (Amiens, Lnon, Beauvais), their king (Orleans, Paris), or of some prince (Augers belonged to the Count d'Anjou, Bordeaux to the Duke d'Aqui- taine). The lord, or rather his intendant (the pro- vost), commanded the inhabitants like a master; he made them pay money, judged them, condemned them, often took their merchandise or arrested them without any motive, for he was the sole judge. In the eleventh century the towns, still very wretched, were hardly to be distinguished from the villages, except that they were surrounded by a wall In the twelfth century, the inhabitants growing richer, began to wish for a more regular government. Gradually, by revolts, the greater number paying large stuns for the privilege, they succeeded in obtaining from the suzerain certain promises which they had 1 Of 500 French towns not more than eighty were ancient Roman towns. 140